Mid-Qing Dynasty 1780–1810
The mid-Qing period toward the end of the eighteenth century and into the beginning of the nineteenth century was plagued by social upheaval and natural disaster leading to severe food shortages. The Qing dynasty were also forced to deal with fiscal crisis and military decay as well as the Lin Shuangwen Rebellion on Taiwan (1787-1788), the Miao disturbances in Sichuan, Hubei, and Guizhou (1795), the White Lotus Rebellion in central China (1795-1804), the Triad uprising in Guangdong (1802-1803), and the Tâyson Rebellion in Vietnam (1771-1802). Guangdong and Fujian was again hit by a series of natural disasters. The years between 1790 and 1869 have been shown to be particularly active for typhoons in this region. Between 1775 and 1810, there were twenty-nine years of famines.
From 1790 to 1802, most pirates were local petty pirates that banded together to form larger ocean fleets. Several pirates during this time also took advantage of the Tâyson regime in Vietnam, seeking their favor and support for supplies and resources. From 1802 to 1807 or 1809, the Guangdong pirates were consolidated by Zheng Yi, a relative of the Zheng family from a decade before, the Fujian pirates were consolidated by Cai Qian and his wife, and Zhu Fen worked as a powerful independent pirate. 1807 to 1810 was dominated by Zheng Yi Sao, Zheng Yi's wife, and her husband's adopted son and her paramour, Zhang Bao. Together they controlled a Guangdong Pirate Federation. The federation was divided into six squadrons, each flying separate colors, with Zheng Yi Sao working as an admiral or chief over all of them. After Zheng Yi died in a typhoon in 1807, Zheng Yi Sao had continued to amass pirates and junks into her giant fleet. By 1809 she had gathered 800 large pirate junks, nearly 1000 smaller pirate junks and about 70,000 pirates.
Large-scale piracy in China came to an end in 1810 when the Guangdong Pirate Federation collapsed in 1810. The deaths in 1809 of Cai Qian, Zhu Fen, and Liang Bao, commander of the White Banner fleet in the Guangdong Pirate Federation, isolated pirates in the Guangdong area. The Qing military used tactics such as an embargo, naval campaigns, and militia resistance that over time wore down the pirates' resistance and determination. The government initiative to entice pirates to surrender lured several powerful leaders and ultimately led up to the surrender of Zhang Bao and Zheng Yi Sao in April 1810.6